Biography

Leo Strauss (1899–1973) was a German-American political philosopher known for his studies of classical political thought and his critique of modernity. Born to a Jewish family in Kirchhain, Germany, he studied philosophy in Marburg, Hamburg, and Freiburg, influenced by neo-Kantianism, phenomenology, and Heidegger. Forced into exile by the rise of Nazism, Strauss emigrated to the United States in 1937, teaching at the New School and later at the University of Chicago, where he trained a generation of influential students. His major works include Natural Right and History (1953), Persecution and the Art of Writing(1952), and On Tyranny (1948). Strauss emphasized the enduring importance of classical political philosophy and the need to recover its insights in the face of modern relativism and historicism.

Life

• Early Years (1899–1930s): Studied in Germany; influenced by Heidegger and neo-Kantianism; associated with Weimar intellectuals.
• Exile (1930s–1940s): Fled Nazi Germany; worked in Paris, Cambridge, and later the U.S.; published On Tyranny(1948).
• Chicago Years (1949–1969): Professor at the University of Chicago; became a central figure in political philosophy, developing his method of close textual interpretation.
• Later Years (1970–1973): Retired but continued teaching and writing until his death in 1973.

Impact on Philosophy

• Revival of Classical Political Thought: Reintroduced Plato, Aristotle, and other ancients as living interlocutors in political philosophy.
• Critique of Modernity: Argued modern philosophy (Machiavelli, Hobbes, Nietzsche, etc.) abandoned natural right, leading to relativism and nihilism.
• Esotericism: Claimed many classical thinkers wrote with hidden meanings to protect themselves from persecution, shaping how texts should be read.
• Political Influence: Though controversial, Strauss influenced American conservatism, especially through his students.
• Legacy: Central figure in debates about liberalism, natural right, and the crisis of modernity.

Concepts

• Natural Right vs. Historicism
  • Definition: Strauss defended natural right (timeless moral truths) against historicism (the idea that values are historically relative).
  • Example: In Natural Right and History (1953), he argued relativism undermines the possibility of political philosophy.
• Esoteric Writing
  • Definition: Philosophers often wrote on two levels — an exoteric (public, surface-level) and an esoteric (hidden, intended for careful readers).
  • Example: In Persecution and the Art of Writing (1952), Strauss claimed thinkers like Maimonides and Plato hid subversive truths between the lines.
• Crisis of Modernity
  • Definition: Modern philosophy replaced classical pursuit of virtue and natural right with relativism, scientism, and individualism.
  • Example: Hobbes and Machiavelli prioritized power and security over virtue and justice, paving the way for modern nihilism.
• Philosophy vs. Politics Tension
  • Definition: Philosophy seeks truth, but truth can destabilize society; hence philosophers wrote cautiously, balancing inquiry with political prudence.
  • Example: Plato’s Republic may be read not just as utopian but as a coded meditation on the dangers of philosophy in politics.
• Return to the Ancients
  • Definition: Strauss called for a revival of classical philosophy (Plato, Aristotle, Xenophon) as an antidote to the crises of modernity.
  • Example: He argued ancient philosophy preserved a seriousness about virtue and truth absent in modern relativism.

Esoteric and Exoteric Teachings

Leo Strauss’s idea of esoteric and exoteric teachings revolves around the distinction between hidden, nuanced messages (esoteric) and clear, surface-level messages (exoteric) in philosophical texts. Strauss believed that many philosophers deliberately wrote in a way that conveyed different meanings to different audiences, often out of necessity to navigate political, social, or cultural constraints. Here’s a detailed explanation:
Exoteric Teachings (For the Many):
• Definition: These are the explicit, straightforward teachings of a text, meant to be accessible and understandable to the general public or ruling authorities.
• Purpose:
• Protection of the Philosopher: Philosophers often lived in societies where expressing unorthodox or controversial ideas could lead to persecution, exile, or even death. Exoteric teachings served as a “safe” interpretation of their ideas, aligned with prevailing norms or values.
• Guidance for Society: Exoteric teachings often promote beliefs or principles that maintain social order or morality, even if they are not philosophically “true.” For example, promoting belief in divine justice might be socially beneficial, even if the philosopher personally doubted its existence.
• Example: A philosopher might write about the necessity of religion for maintaining morality and social order, even if they privately reject religious belief.
Esoteric Teachings (For the Few):
• Definition: These are the hidden, deeper meanings embedded in the text, intended for a small, intellectually capable audience who can discern the philosopher’s true views.
• Purpose:
• Communication of Truth: Philosophers often sought to share their true insights with like-minded thinkers without drawing undue attention or controversy.
• Protection of Society: Some truths, Strauss believed, could be dangerous or destabilizing if widely understood. By encoding them esoterically, philosophers protected society from potential chaos.
• Encouraging Intellectual Engagement: Esoteric teachings required active interpretation, inviting readers to critically engage with the text and think deeply about its meaning.
• Example: A philosopher might use contradictions, irony, or omissions to signal their true beliefs to careful readers while outwardly conforming to societal norms.
Strauss’s Justification for Esoteric Writing
Strauss argued that many great thinkers, especially in pre-modern times, lived under conditions that necessitated esoteric writing:

1. Political Persecution: Free thought could be seen as subversive by political or religious authorities.
2. Preservation of Philosophy: Esotericism ensured that philosophical truths were preserved across generations, even in hostile climates.
3. Tension Between Philosophy and Society: Philosophers often saw a gap between the pursuit of truth (philosophy) and the requirements of a stable society. Esotericism allowed them to bridge this gap without undermining either pursuit.
   Reading Texts with Strauss’s Framework
   Strauss advocated for reading philosophical texts “between the lines” to uncover the esoteric teachings. This approach includes:
4. Noticing Contradictions or Inconsistencies: These may signal where the philosopher is hinting at deeper meanings.
5. Examining the Historical Context: Understanding the cultural or political environment in which the philosopher wrote can illuminate why certain ideas were concealed.
6. Recognizing the Audience: Differentiating between the intended audiences for the exoteric and esoteric messages.
   Implications of Esoteric and Exoteric Teachings
7. Philosophy as Elite Knowledge: Strauss’s theory underscores a division between those capable of understanding complex, hidden truths and the general public who benefit from simplified, socially constructive narratives.
8. Modern Relevance: Critics argue that this approach can lead to elitism or the misinterpretation of texts, but supporters see it as a necessary tool for understanding philosophical works, especially in oppressive contexts.
   In sum, Strauss’s distinction emphasizes the layered nature of philosophical texts and the challenges philosophers face in balancing truth-telling with social pragmatism.

Criticisms of Strauss

• Elitism & Anti-Democracy
  • Critics accuse Strauss of distrusting democracy and favoring rule by philosophical elites.
  • Critique: His emphasis on esotericism and “hidden truths” can be read as supporting elitist politics.
• Ambiguity of Esotericism
  • Many scholars find Strauss’s esoteric reading of texts speculative, lacking firm evidence.
  • Critique: Detractors argue he projected hidden meanings into texts rather than uncovering them.
• Association with Neoconservatism
  • Some of Strauss’s students became associated with U.S. neoconservatism, leading to claims (often overstated) that Strauss inspired hawkish policies.
  • Critique: This link remains debated — many Straussians reject the association.
• Critique of Modernity Questioned
  • His claim that modern philosophy leads to nihilism is contested; many see modernity as enabling progress, rights, and science.
• Insufficient Engagement with Non-Western Thought
  • Strauss largely ignored non-Western traditions, making his recovery of “classical philosophy” narrowly Eurocentric.
• Obscure & Esoteric Style
  • Strauss himself often wrote in dense, allusive ways, frustrating critics and fueling suspicions of dogmatism.

References

• Strauss, Leo. On Tyranny (1948).
• Strauss, Leo. Persecution and the Art of Writing (1952).
• Strauss, Leo. Natural Right and History (1953).
• Strauss, Leo. The City and Man (1964).
• Smith, Steven B. Reading Leo Strauss (2006).
• Drury, Shadia. Leo Strauss and the American Right (1997).